Attendance

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES (2h) Types of waves and their fundamental parameters. Inverse square law. Wave interference. Structure of the atom. Electromagnetic spectrum. Ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. Radiation sources. Electromagnetic waves: wave model and particle model. Wave–particle duality. INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER (4h) Interaction of alpha and beta rays with matter. Interaction of X-rays and gamma rays with matter. X-ray attenuation law. Intensity, Fluence, Kerma, Exposure, and Linear Attenuation Coefficient. Classical scattering (Rayleigh scattering). Photoelectric effect. Compton effect. Pair production. Isotopes. Alpha and beta decay. Nuclear decay and half-life. Overview of medical applications of radiation. THE X-RAY TUBE – QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE BEAM (4h) Block diagram of an X-ray unit. Transformer and power supply circuits. Rectifiers. Single-phase generators: half-wave and full-wave. Three-phase, six-phase, and twelve-phase generators. The Coolidge tube. Structure of cathode and anode (stationary and rotating). Focal spot and anode angle. Filament, focusing cup, and thermionic emission. Angular distribution of X-rays, “heel effect”. Family of anode curves. Anode current. Anode heat capacity and thermal load curves. X-ray spectrum: continuous spectrum and characteristic X-rays. Collimation systems. Tube housing/shielding. Inherent filtration, housing thermal capacity. Beam quality and mean energy: influencing physical and technical factors (kVp, filtration, high-voltage waveform). Beam quality and Half Value Layer (HVL). Measurement of X-ray tube output. Physical, technical, and geometrical factors affecting tube efficiency. Radiographic image formation. Geometric penumbra. Effect of focal distance. Measurement of focal spot size and geometric distortion effects. AUTOMATIC EXPOSURE CONTROL (AEC) (1h) AEC components. Ionization chamber. Setting mAs and exposure adjustment. Patient positioning issues and detector selection. OVERVIEW OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION AND RADIATION PROTECTION (1h) Dose and relative biological dose. Biological effects of radiation. Onset timing and exposure levels. Deterministic effects. Stochastic effects. Equivalent dose and effective dose. Risk factors. Comparison among different types of risk. Basics of radiation protection for operator and patient. Principles of justification, optimization, and dose limits. Rules of good practice. CT SCAN (4h) Analog and digital imaging. Tomographic planes. Pixel, voxel, slice. Image sampling. Image digitization and dynamic range. Gray-scale and color representation. Image resolution. Historical development of CT. Analog-to-digital converter. Fourier transform. Object projections and attenuation profiles. Tomographic image reconstruction. Back-projection and iterative methods. Hounsfield numbers. Windowing. Contrast. CT hardware components. CT generations and their features. Spiral and multi-slice CT. Parameters for qualitative image characterization. MTF (Modulation Transfer Function). Noise. Automatic exposure control. CT post-processing: MPR, MIP, Volume Rendering, 3D SSD, Surface Rendering, etc. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (4h) Basics of electromagnetism. Faraday-Neumann law. Magnetic field–Spin interaction. Magnetic resonance phenomenon. Larmor equation and precession frequency. Principle of operation of an MRI scanner. MR signal. T1 and T2 relaxation times. MRI hardware components. Superconducting magnets. Magnetic field gradients and spatial encoding. Radiofrequency coils. Sequences: Free Induction Decay, Spin-Echo, Gradient Echo, Inversion Recovery (characteristic parameters). T1- and T2-weighted images. K-space.

In order to pass the exam, it is recommended a theoretical in-depth analysis since the beginning of the course. Consultation and study suggested books are: • Roberto Passariello: "Radiologia - Elementi di Tecnologia", Idelson-Gnocchi. • Stewart C. Bushong: “Fondamenti di fisica, biologia e protezione nella radiologia medica”. Casa Editrice Ambrosiana. • R.F. Laitano: “Fondamenti di dosimetria delle radiazioni ionizzanti”. 4° Ed. ENEA (file pdf). • Jerrold T. Bushberg, J. Anthony Seibert: "The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging", Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. • D.R. Dance: ”Diagnostic Radiology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students”, IAEA (file pdf). • Notes from class lectures.

The teacher delivers lectures with traditional methods and/or by web, with audiovisual aids and scheduling of lessons as reported on GOMP “Aule/Orari” system, or published on the website of the School.

According to the Regulations of the School, the student is required to attend educational activities, formal, non-formal, vocational. The frequency is checked by the teachers through attendance signature updated lists provided by the Academic Office, as established by CCL. The attendance certificate of mandatory didactic activities of a teaching course is required for the student to be admitted at the final test.

The final student evaluation consists in a written test (solution of exercises and multiple choice questions) and/or oral exam. To pass the exam, it is mandatory to obtain a mark not less than 18/30 for each teaching module. The student must show the acquisition of a sufficient knowledge of the course subjects and to be able to relate them to the operative effects that they imply. To obtain a 30/30 “cum laude” mark, the student must show an excellent acquisition of all course subjects and to be able to link them in a logic and coherent way. This evaluation can also be achieved by oral exam.

The teacher delivers lectures with traditional methods and/or by web, with audiovisual aids and scheduling of lessons as reported on GOMP “Aule/Orari” system, or published on the website of the School.