Midwifery

Advanced pharmacology: receptors, agonists, and antagonists, hepatic metabolism (CYP450), toxicity, and drug interactions. Pathophysiology of stress: concepts of homeostasis, allostasis, and allostatic load; classic models of Selye, McEwen, and Lazarus. Neuroendocrinology of stress: hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, sympathetic and immune responses. Clinical implications of chronic stress and individual vulnerability: ulcers, immunosuppression, addictions, mood disorders. Anti-stress and therapeutic role of oxytocin and its agonists (e.g., carbetocin) in neuroendocrine regulation, uterine contraction, and maternal-infant bonding.