Archive and Library Theory and Management

Mathematics and physics review required for the course: Physical quantities, the international system, units of measurement. Scientific notation. Tables and graphs. Energy: Law of conservation of energy, examples of forms of energy, units of measurement. The matter: Atomic structure: electrons, protons, and neutrons, atomic number and mass number. Rutherford model and its limitations. Bohr model, shell, principal quantum number, shell energy and occupancy. Examples of electronic configurations (hydrogen, helium, lithium, and sodium). Molecules, examples of molecules (O2, N2, H2O, DNA, proteins, lipids, etc.), organic molecules, rotational and vibrational motions of a molecule, rotational and vibrational energies and their order of magnitude. Crystalline solids, examples (diamond, sodium chloride, cinnabar). Polycrystalline solids, examples (rocks, lapis lazuli). Amorphous solids. Electronic levels of a crystalline solid, valence band, conduction band, and band gap, conductors, insulators, and semiconductors. Electromagnetic waves: Electrostatic field, magnetostatic field, electromagnetic field. Examples of waves. Characteristics of electromagnetic waves, speed of light. Harmonic plane wave, wavefront, wavelength, period, frequency and their relationships, intensity. Spectrum of electromagnetic waves. Sources of electromagnetic waves (antennas, electronic devices, lasers, LEDs, incandescent lamps, X-ray generators, synchrotron radiation). Wave-particle duality: Interference and diffraction, diffraction grating, crystal lattice diffraction. The photoelectric effect and its explanation, the photon, photon energy as a function of frequency or wavelength. Spectroscopy: Transmitted and scattered beams, fluorescence. Spectra. Lambert-Beer law, absorption coefficient and its units, attenuation length, mean free path of electrons. Absorption coefficient in the X-ray region, absorption thresholds, elastic (Rayleigh) and inelastic (Compton) scattering. X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF): Ionization of the atom and subsequent emission of X-ray fluorescence photons (characteristic photons). Energy of characteristic photons and its relationship to the electronic configuration of the atom. Classification of characteristic photons (K, L, and M photons). The XRF spectrometer: operation of an X-ray tube, emission spectrum (maximum energy of the emitted photons, characteristic lines of the anode, absorption of air and the beryllium window), generator power and cooling modes; wavelength-dispersive X-ray detector, operation of an energy-dispersive X-ray detector and its characteristics (efficiency, resolution); operation of a multichannel analyzer. Wavelength-dispersive XRF spectrometer (WD-XRF). Energy-dispersive XRF spectrometer (ED-XRF), reading an ED-XRF spectrum (characteristic lines, background due to elastic and inelastic scattering) and identifying the chemical elements present in the sample, fitting of ED-XRF spectra, qualitative and semi-quantitative analysis, investigated volume, detection limit. Potential and limitations of ED-XRF spectroscopy. Comparison between ED-XRF and WD-XRF spectroscopy. Other techniques based on the emission of characteristic X-ray photons: Particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE). Particle sources (accelerators, radioactive sources). Detection limit, investigated volume. Scanning electron microscope with energy-dispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS) and electron microprobe analysis (EMPA). Overview of the operating principles of the two techniques. Detection limit, investigated volume. Potential and limitations of the three techniques. Comparison with ED-XRF. Fiber Optic Reflectance Spectroscopy (FORS): Specular reflection, refraction, absorption, and scattering. Operating principle of the technique. Experimental apparatus: halogen lamp, probe types (integrating sphere, probe with circular illuminator, probe with 45° illuminator), spectrometer with diffraction grating and linear semiconductor sensor (Si, InGaAs), ideal scatterer (Spectralon). Spectral reflectance. Apparent absorbance. Examples of FORS spectra of inorganic pigments and organic dyes (semiconductor solid pigments, iron oxide pigments, copper-based greens, lapis lazuli, azurite, lakes). Raman spectroscopy: Overview of the physical principle. Stoke and anti-Stokes lines, Raman shift, wavenumber, and its units. Schematic of the experimental setup. Potential and limitations of the technique. Application example: differences between the Raman spectra of type I and type II lead-tin yellow. Infrared spectroscopy: Physical principle. Normal modes: symmetric stretching, asymmetric stretching, deformation. Analysis modes: transmission, attenuated total reflectance (ATR), diffuse reflectance (DRIFTS or ER-FTIR). Examples of application of the technique. Fluorescence spectroscopy: Physical principle. Experimental apparatus. Examples of application of the technique: organic dyes, parchment. Imaging techniques: Charge-coupled device (CCD) sensors: spatial resolution and bit rate, analog-to-digital conversion and bit rate. Scanning detection systems. UV-induced visible fluorescence imaging: physical principle, experimental setup, applications (mapping the presence of fluorescent pigments, visualization of restoration interventions, recovery of the lower script in palimpsests). Infrared reflectography: physical principle, experimental setup, difference between silicon CCDs and InGaAs CCDs, applications (visualization of preparatory drawings and pentimenti, mapping the presence of certain pigments). Multispectral and hyperspectral imaging: differences between the two techniques and respective experimental setups, applications (mapping the state of degradation, virtual restoration, mapping of materials). Radiography: physical principle, experimental setup, film and imaging plate, magnification, applications (visualization of pentimenti and underlying paintings, monitoring the state of degradation, virtual restoration). Thermography: physical principle, experimental apparatus, applications (material mapping, recovery of hidden writing from sheets or other non-removable materials, recovery of writing that is illegible due to stains, visualization of detachments from metal sheets). Testo consigliato Olga Piccolo e Ezio Puppin, Tecniche diagnostiche per i beni culturali, Maggioli Editore (2008) ISBN: 8838743312. (cap. 1; cap. 2 pagg. 63-67, 69-76; cap. 4 pagg. 168-171, cap. 5 pagg. 191-206)

Knowledge of physics at high school level. Knowledge of the English language is desirable

Lecture notes provided by the teacher and scientific articles. For topics concerning physical principles and some of the investigation techniques we recommend consulting: Olga Piccolo, Ezio Puppin, Tecniche diagnostiche per i beni culturali, Maggioli Editore (2008) ISBN: 8838743312

Attendance is strongly recommended.

The student will choose a scientific article in which at least two of the techniques described during the course have been used for the study of manuscripts or ancient printed books. During the interview the student will explain and comment on the research reported in the article and describe the techniques used, answering any questions posed by the teacher. For the presentation the student may use a slide presentation. Furthermore, the teacher will ask a question related to the planning of a scientific investigation project on manuscripts or ancient printed books that uses the techniques described during the course. The exam will evaluate the level of understanding of the physical principles underlying the investigation techniques, their field of application and their limits. The ability to critically analyze instrumental data and plan an investigation project will also be assessed.

The course includes both lectures and laboratory experiences.